1800 which century

These histories are interrelated, and have also significantly shaped the reception and understanding of contemporary operas created by Asian American composers and writers. While these operatic works of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are significantly different from those of earlier moments in history, their production and interpretation cannot escape this influence.

Beginnings and Endings. Each temporal sequence specifically, in language has its own structure and dynamics, but the beginning and the ending may be said to be universally important or significant points within such a sequence. They constitute the boundaries, or frame, of the literary text, separating it—and the world it projects—from the world around us, thus playing an important role in determining its basic shape. The beginning is also particularly important in creating a primacy effect, setting off our mind in a certain direction and thereby influencing our entire reception of the work.

Historically, such beginnings became widespread from the late 19th century, with the transition from realism to modernism. A phenomenon that is particularly intriguing in the context of narrative beginnings is that of the exposition, since by definition it always constitutes the beginning of the mimetic or actional sequence but is not necessarily located at the beginning of the textual sequence.

Delimiting the ending as a textual unit involves a fundamental issue of a different kind than those relevant to beginnings: since the ending follows everything else in the text, it is difficult to consider it without considering through it, so to speak, the text as a whole. The understanding and appreciation of endings depend to a large extent on what has preceded them.

But at the same time they tend to play an important role in retrospectively shaping it and often have a lasting impact on its evaluation. The critical study of the ending has paid a good deal of attention to closure, so much so that there is a widespread tendency to conflate the two concepts; it is important, however, to differentiate between them. Border and la frontera in the US—Mexico Borderlands. In the U. The border is the international boundary line between the two countries, and the borderlands are the zones neighboring both sides of that boundary.

While the borders mark the place where adjacent jurisdictions, communities, and nation-states meet, it has also been a hotly contested subject—literally and figuratively speaking—inciting extreme emotional reactions that fuel negative stereotypes about immigrants, ethnic discrimination, and xenophobia. Immigration has become one of the most salient sociopolitical issues discussed on the national level. Unfortunately, it is debated mainly outside of the historical context because the histories embedded in its borderlands can contribute enormously to inform current political debates about immigration in the United States.

Border crossers coming from south of the border are often portrayed by U. As the national discussion on immigration reform continues and the alleged ills of the U. Caribbean and Southern Literatures.

Transnationalism and Global Studies have exploded old notions of artificial cultural boundaries, opening to view the myriad cross currents between the U. South and the Caribbean. Thus, the literature produced by the wider region of the circumCaribbean can be considered to reflect this interplay and as an alternative history to chronicles bounded by nationalism.

While the age of contact and contest, the Haitian Revolution, and the U. Nowhere is this dynamic more evident than in the literature of the circumCaribbean, especially in the new forms it has taken over the past fifty years.

The Chapter. First known as a kephalaion in Greek, capitulum or caput in Latin, the chapter arose in antiquity as a finding device within long, often heterogenous prose texts, prior even to the advent of the codex. By the 4th century ce, it was no longer unusual for texts to be composed in capitula; but it is with the advent of the fictional prose narratives we call the novel that the chapter, both ubiquitous and innocuous, developed into a compositional practice with a distinct way of thinking about biographical time.

One of the primary ways the chapter became a narrative form rather than just an editorial practice is through the long history of the chaptering of the Bible, particularly the various systems for chaptering the New Testament, which culminated in the early 13th century formation of the biblical chaptering system still in use across the West. By the 18th century, a vibrant set of discussions, controversies, and experiments with chapters were characteristic of the novel form, which increasingly used chapter titles and chapter breaks to meditate upon how different temporal units understand human agency in different ways.

With the eventual dominance of the novel in 19th-century literary culture, the chapter had been honed into a way of thinking about the segmented nature of biographical memory, as well as the temporal frames—the day, the year, the episode or epoch—in which that segmenting occurs; chapters in this period were of an increasingly standard size, although still lacking any formal rules or definition. Modernist prose narratives often played with the chapter form, expanding it or drastically shortening it, but these experiments usually tended to reaffirm the unit of the chapter as a significant measure by which we make sense of human experience.

Class and Poverty in Southern Literature. The South has generated a unique set of myths, which are often at odds with the dominant Puritan-bred tales of American exceptionalism.

If the North had to downplay vertical visions of the social, class stratifications have always been recognized more readily in the Southern regions. Rather than disentangling race from class, however, these categories were seen as closely connected in the antebellum slave-holding South.

Even after the end of slavery, class was never solely an economic category; surprisingly close to notions of caste, class dynamics came fully entrenched with cultural distinctions, which more often than not were cast in the language of blood ties—the rhetoric of race.

As a result, strong values were attributed to these distinctions. And although the North, too, assessed the rich and the poor in the stern moral vocabulary, the influence of pseudo-scientific Eugenics studies and other factors added a new dimension to this moralizing of the hierarchic order in the South. This had repercussions on the way the poor were perceived. The allegedly chivalrous planter aristocracy at the top found their counterpart at the low end of the stratum in a form of abject poverty.

Some poor whites were located just a notch above the black citizenry whose exclusion dramatically exceeded went beyond economic hardship. The first century was from 1 to Ordinal numbers are used to enumerate things in a sequence, and the first thing in a sequence is, quite naturally and obviously, called "the first".

It's a matter of simple mathematical fact that the period from 1 to was the first century, and that the period from to was the nineteenth century. I know that "zeroth" does have some specialized uses. But for simple historical issues, I think the more traditional ordinal numbers should be used.

I think even them though would refer to the period from 0 to 99 or 1 to for that matter as the 1st century rather than the 0th century. However, the period from 0 to 9 or 1 to is not the first century in a sequence as there were centuries before that, so it makes just as much sense to call it the "0th century" as it does to call it the "1st century".

Also, saying the "-2nd century" and the "-1st century" makes more sense than saying the "2nd century BC" and the "1st century BC", as afterall, how can the first come after the second? Born on September 16, , William D. Foster Early reports state she was performing at the young age of … Read More Arabella Fields William B. Hartgrove, Jr. Charles Barry wins the competition to design the new Houses of Parliament.

The inhabitants of the Mexican province of Texas declare their independence as a new republic. Go to Texas in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Go to Alamo in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Hendrik Potgieter sets off with some Boers and their cattle at the start of the Great Trek to the north.

Go to Great Trek —40 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. A site is selected for Adelaide and emigration begins from Britain to south Australia. Go to Adelaide in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Go to Gogol, Nikolai —52 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The Tolpuddle Martyrs are brought back to England from Australia after public protest leads to their sentences being remitted.

The Portuguese ban the shipping of slaves from the coast of Angola. Hendrik Potgieter and the Boers, protected by a laager at Vegkop, hold off an attack by a large force of Ndebele tribesmen. American professor William Holmes McGuffey writes the first of his immensely popular school reading books. Work begins on the suspension bridge over the river Avon, at Clifton, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

HMS Beagle reaches Falmouth, in Cornwall, after a voyage of five years, and Charles Darwin brings with him a valuable collection of specimens. In his essay, Nature , Ralph Waldo Emerson sets out the fundamentals of the philosophy of Transcendentalism.

Martin van Buren, previously vice-president to Andrew Jackson, wins the US presidential election on the Democratic ticket. Louis Agassiz builds a hut on the Aar glacier in Switzerland and succeeds in recording gradual movement of the ice. After a victory at Vegkop, Boers massacre the inhabitants of a dozen Ndebele villages in secret dawn raids.

Piet Retief emerges as the new leader of the Great Trek, replacing Potgieter. The year-old Victoria comes to the throne in Britain, beginning the long Victorian era. The Whig party in Britain begin referring to themselves as Liberals. Go to Whigs in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Potgieter defeats the Ndebele at the Marico river and drives them north of the Limpopo. Piet Retief reaches a provisional agreement with Dingaan, the Zulu leader, for a Boer settlement in southern Natal.

Rebellions in Canada reveal widespread discontent with the British administration, particularly among the French settlers. Zanzibar becomes the main place of residence of the sultan of Oman. Hector Berlioz's requiem mass, the Grande messe des morts , has its first performance in Paris. The first trains run between London and Birmingham on the railway designed by Robert Stephenson.

Charles Dickens' first novel, Oliver Twist , begins monthly publication in book form, An Irish packet steamer, the Sirius , becomes the first steamship to cross the Atlantic, completing the journey to New York in 19 days.

Brunel's Great Western , a wooden paddle-steamer, arrives in New York the day after the Sirius , with the record for an Atlantic crossing already reduced to 15 days. US inventor Samuel Morse gives the first public demonstration, in Philadelphia, of his electric telegraph. During a ceremony to celebrate their treaty with Dingaan, Piet Retief and his Boer companions are overpowered and killed.

Dingaan's warriors massacre Boer families in a series of dawn raids near the Bloukrans river. Five American Indian tribes are forcibly escorted to a new Indian Territory west of the Mississippi in the process that becomes known as the Great Removal. Go to Central America in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The London Prize Ring rules disallow kicking, gouging, head-butting and biting in the sport of boxing. Go to boxing in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed.

John James Audubon completes publication of the plates forming his 4-volume Birds of America. Go to Audubon, John James 26 Apr. The People's Charter, with its six political demands, launches the Chartist movement in England. Go to Chartism noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Civil war breaks out in Uruguay between the Reds and the Whites, followers respectively of Rivera and Oribe. US naval officer Charles Wilkes leads a four-year exploration of the Antarctic and Pacific, proving on the way that Antarctica is a continent.

In his Divinity School Address, delivered at Harvard, Ralph Waldo Emerson criticizes formal religion and gives priority to personal spiritual experience.

US author Nathaniel Hawthorne publishes Fanshawe , his first novel, at his own expense. Go to Hawthorne, Nathaniel —64 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The British seize the strategic port of Aden and administer it as a province annexed to India. Go to Aden in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Mutiny by slaves on a Spanish vessel leads two years later to a significant abolitionist victory in the Amistad case.

Go to Amistad Case. Abd-el-Kader proclaims a holy war against the French in Algeria and begins a military campaign that will last for eight years. Andries Pretorius sets up the Boer republic of Natalia, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg.

Go to Pretorius, Andries — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. British troops invade China after the Chinese authorities seize and destroy the opium stocks of British merchants in Canton. In the Bedchamber Crisis, Queen Victoria shows steely determination in refusing to dismiss politically committed ladies of her bedchamber. British forces capture Hong Kong, which is subsequently ceded to Britain by China at the end of the first Opium War in Go to Courbet, Gustave —77 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

With Boer help, Mpande removes his brother Dingaan from the Zulu throne and takes his place. Swiss scientist Louis Agassiz argues, in his Study on Glaciers , that much of Europe was recently in the grip of an ice age. Napoleon's remains are brought to Paris for burial in Les Invalides, as the Napoleonic legend grows.

Queen Victoria gives Kew Gardens to the nation, as a botanic garden of scientific importance. Muhammad Ali, officially viceroy for the Turkish sultan, establishes his own ruling dynasty on the throne of Egypt. Go to Muhammad Ali — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Victoria marries Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and soon, with nine children, they provide the very image of the ideal Victorian family.

The first issue of the quarterly magazine The Dial is issued by the Transcendentalists meeting at Ralph Waldo Emerson's home. Robert Schumann marries the pianist Clara Wieck, daughter of his first teacher. William Henry Harrison wins the US presidential election as the Whig candidate, but dies 30 days after taking office. Go to Dana, Richard Henry, Jr. Herman Melville goes to sea on the whaler Acushnet and spends more than a year in the south Pacific.

Go to Melville, Herman —91 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The Straits Convention, agreed between the European powers and Turkey, is a concerted attempt to prop up the Ottoman empire. Robert Peel replaces Lord Melbourne as prime minister after a Conservative victory in the British general election. Fox Talbot patents the 'calotype', introducing the negative-positive process that becomes standard in photography. Horace Greeley founds and edits the New-York Tribune , which will survive for more than a century till Go to Greeley, Horace —72 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

On the sudden death of US president William Henry Harrison, from pneumonia, he is succeeded in the office by his vice-president John Tyler. Go to Tyler, John — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. With a teetotallers' rail trip for people, Thomas Cook introduces the notion of the package tour. Britain sends four naval ships up the river Niger to make anti-slavery treaties with local kings. Go to income tax in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed. Lord Shaftesbury's Mines Act makes it illegal for boys under 13, and women and girls of any age, to be employed underground in Britain.

The British abandon Kabul, losing most of the garrison force in the withdrawal to India and bringing to an end the first Anglo-Afghan war. The young Friedrich Engels is sent from Germany to manage the family cotton-spinning factory in Manchester.

The success of the opera Nabucco , premiered in Milan, is a turning point in the fortunes of Giuseppe Verdi. Go to Verdi, Giuseppe — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

Irish nationalist Daniel O'Connell pioneers mass political demonstrations, which become known as 'monster meetings'. Edwin Pearce Christy launches the Virginia Minstrels, later to become America's most popular minstrel show under the name Christy's Minstrels. English poet Robert Browning publishes a vivid narrative poem about the terrible revenge of The Pied Piper of Hamelin. Austrian physicist Christian Doppler explains the acoustic effect now known by his name.

The publication of the first part of the satirical novel Dead Souls , by Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol, proves a sensation in Russia. US showman P. Barnum draws huge crowds to the New York premises where his attractions include 'General Tom Thumb', a 4-year-old midget. The Brunel engineers, father and son, finish an year project tunnelling under the Thames between Wapping and Rotherhithe.

The Flying Dutchman is the first of Richard Wagner's major operas to be staged, with its premiere in Dresden. Go to Wagner, Richard —83 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The British take control of the existing Boer republic and proclaim Natal a British protectorate. Henry Cole commissions copies of the world's first Christmas card, designed for him by John Calcott Horsley. Go to Oregon Trail in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The statue of Nelson, by E.

Baily, is placed on top of its column in Trafalgar Square. Go to Baily, Edward Hodges 10 Mar. Isambard Kingdom Brunel launches the Great Britain , the first iron steamship designed for the transatlantic passenger trade. Mendelssohn's overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream , amplified now with incidental music, is greeted as a masterpiece at a performance of the play in Potsdam.

William Hickling Prescott brings the Conquistadors dramatically to life in his 3-volume History of the Conquest of Mexico. Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz completes his pioneering Poissons Fossiles 'Fossil Fish' , classifying more than categories.

Daniel O'Connell is convicted of seditious conspiracy and is sentenced to prison. The first great entrepreneur of the railway age, George Hudson, becomes known as the Railway King. The Hungarian diet decrees that Magyar, rather than German, is to be the official language of the kingdom.

Go to Hungarian in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Daniel O'Connell is acquitted on appeal and released from prison. In his novel Coningsby Benjamin Disraeli develops the theme of Conservatism uniting 'two nations', the rich and the poor.

Go to Nicholas I — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels meet in Paris and become life-long friends. James Polk pledges in his presidential campaign to include the self-proclaimed republic of Texas in the USA. The Mormon leader, Joseph Smith, and his brother are killed by an armed mob in Nauvoo. The other half of Hispaniola joins Haiti in declaring independence, as the Dominican Republic.

New Yorker Alexander Cartwright devises the set of rules that become the basis of the modern game of baseball. Go to baseball in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. British archaeologist Henry Layard, in his first month of digging in Iraq, discovers the Assyrian city of Nimrud. A blight destroys the potato crop in Ireland and causes what becomes known as the Great Famine.

Henry David Thoreau moves into a hut that he has built for himself in the woods at Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts. The expansionist slogan 'Manifest Destiny' is coined by journalist John L. Go to manifest destiny in A Dictionary of World History 2 ed.

With his emphasis on the subjective experience of human Existenz , the Danish philosopher Kierkegaard plants the seed of existentialism. Escaped slave Frederick Douglass publishes the first of three volumes of autobiography. Go to Douglass, Frederick —95 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. US author Margaret Fuller publishes Woman in the Nineteenth Century , an early and thoughtful feminist study of women's place in society.

Queen Victoria and Prince Albert follow the German custom of a family Christmas tree, immediately making it popular in Britain. The self-contained metal cartridge, with a percussion cap in its base, is patented by a Paris gunsmith named Houiller. British prime minister Robert Peel carries a bill to repeal the Corn Laws, splitting his own party in the process.

Francis Parkman travels west into dangerous territory in Wyoming, an adventure he later describes in The Oregon Trail. The Irish, fleeing from the potato famine at home, become the main group of immigrants to the USA.

The minority of Conservatives supporting Peel become a separate faction, henceforth known as the Peelites. Go to Peelite noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed.

Edward Lear publishes his Book of Nonsense , consisting of limericks illustrated with his own cartoons. With his Conservative party split, Peel's government falls and Lord John Russell becomes British prime minister at the head of a Whig administration.

Brigham Young leads the migration of Mormons west up the Missouri from Illinois. Go to Young, Brigham —77 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Mendelssohn's oratorio Elijah has its premiere in England, in the city of Birmingham. Go to Smithsonian Institution in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. A dentist in Boston, William Morton, uses ether as an anaesthetic while surgeon John Collins Warren removes a tumour in a patient's neck.

Landlords in Scotland begin to clear crofters from Highland estates so as to provide pasture for sheep. Go to Highland clearances in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Members of the Donner Party, on the trail to California, survive by eating human flesh when trapped by snow in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada. A new Factory Act is passed in Britain, limiting the working day of women and children to a maximum of ten hours. Scottish obstetrician James Simpson uses anaesthetic ether, and later in the year chloroform to ease difficulty in childbirth.

English author William Makepeace Thackeray begins publication of his novel Vanity Fair in monthly parts book form At a congress in London Engels persuades a group of radical Germans to adopt the name Communist League.

Pretorius leads the last Boer families out of Natal and over the Drakensberg to the high veld. Don Pacifico's house in Athens is burnt by an anti-Semitic crowd, provoking an international incident.

Liberia wins independence and international recognition as a republic. Go to Liberia in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed.

Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes his first collection of poems, many of which have appeared first in The Dial. Napoleon's widow, the empress Marie Louise, now the duchess of Parma, dies in Parma. Gold is found on the property of John Sutter, at Coloma on the Sacramento river in California, and news of it launches the first gold rush. Go to gold rush noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. An uprising in Sicily in January starts off Europe's 'year of revolutions'.

Go to Revolutions of in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Two New York girls, Maggie and Katie Fox, claim to be in touch with the spirit of a murdered man, thus launching the modern cult of spiritualism. Go to spiritualism in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

The Prussian army is the first to adopt a breech-loading rifle, the 'needle-gun' developed by gunsmith Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse. The Wilmot Proviso is defeated in the US Senate, heightening north-south tensions on the issue of slavery. The Communist Manifesto, by Marx and Engels, is published in Paris with the ringing slogan: 'Workers of the world, unite! An uprising in Vienna leads to the resignation, on the following day, of the long-serving chancellor Klemens von Metternich.

Another uprising in Vienna causes the emperor Ferdinand I to flee for safety to Innsbruck. Go to Wisconsin in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Martial law is imposed in Prague after a demonstration by radical Czech students following a Pan-Slav congress. Scottish physicist William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, proposes the 'absolute' scale of temperature. Go to Free State in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. English caricaturist George Cruikshank publishes The Drunkard's Children in support of the developing Temperance movement.

Suppression of unrest in Hungary provokes a third violent uprising in Vienna and another flight by Ferdinand I, this time to Olomouc. Louis Napoleon is elected the first president of France's new Second Republic.

Susannah is in the first published collection of popular songs by Stephen Collins Foster. A utopian community dedicated to the sharing of both property and sexual favours is established by John Humphrey Noyes near Oneida, New York. The prime minister of the papal states, Pellegrino Rossi, is assassinated in Rome. The second Anglo-Sikh war begins when a British army invades the Punjab to suppress a local uprising. Go to Taylor, Zachary — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

Go to Franz Joseph — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Prince Albert is the driving force behind the plans for a Great Exhibition in London. A new Roman republic is proclaimed, with veteran agitator Giuseppe Mazzini in the leading role. Charles Dickens begins the publication in monthly numbers of David Copperfield , his own favourite among his novels.

A British victory at the Battle of Gujarat effectively ends the second Anglo-Sikh war, and is followed by annexation of the Punjab. Giuseppe Garibaldi arrives from exile in South America to defend the new Roman republic against a French army. Go to Garibaldi, Giuseppe —82 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Delegates of the German states offer the imperial crown of a united Germany to Frederick William IV, the king of Prussia, who rejects it.

Francis Parkman's The Oregon Trail , already serialized in , is published in book form. Nationalist leader Lajos Kossuth announces the independence of Hungary and the deposition of the Habsburg dynasty. Go to Kossuth, Lajos —94 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

An anti-British mob attacks the New York theatre where William Macready is appearing as Macbeth, leaving 22 dead and many injured. Go to Roberts, David 24 Oct. The gold rush to California gathers pace during , causing the prospectors to become known as 'forty-niners'. Go to Strauss, Johann —99 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Pope Pius IX returns to Rome under the protection of French troops, with his enthusiasm for any form of change much reduced.

The Habsburgs recover power in both Austria and Hungary. Go to Habsburg in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Expelled from Germany after the year of revolutions, Marx makes his home in tolerant London. Vancouver Island is given the status of a British crown colony, to be followed by British Columbia in Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky undergoes a mock execution, after being sentenced to death for revolutionary activities against tsar Nicholas I.

Fyodor Dostoevsky begins four years of hard labour in Siberia for revolutionary activities. Queen Victoria knights her favourite painter of animals, Edwin Landseer. The Scottish missionary David Livingstone is profoundly shocked by what he sees of the slave trade at the heart of Africa. British foreign secretary Lord Palmerston sends a naval squadron to seize Greek ships in the Don Pacifico case.

As many as 50, US pioneers travel west this year on the Oregon Trail. Alfred Tennyson's elegy for a friend, In Memoriam , captures perfectly the Victorian mood of heightened sensibility. British engineer Robert Stephenson completes a box-girder railway bridge over the Menai Strait, between Anglesey and mainland Wales.

Go to Stephenson, Robert —59 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. California is admitted to the union just two years after being acquired from Mexico. Go to California in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed.

The slave trade, but not slavery itself, is banned in Washington and the district of Columbia.